Doing my research for this website, I found that the absolute majority of academic sources on the subject are written by those well-versed in Islam, for those well-versed in Islam. So many words that in Arabic/African Studies wouldn't need defining in papers, were ones that non-Muslim people would likely have never encountered. Hence this page, for the beginner learner in a culture so steeped in a culturally complex religion. This page is an Introductory to Islam and the terms and specific teachings of the schools of thought popular in West Africa.



Islam is one of the major religions of the world, second only to Christianity. At its heart is tawḥīd, the absolute oneness of God (Allah). A popular misconception is that Allah and God are two different characters, however they are one in the same, Muslims call them Allah because they believe in the sacredness of the untouched Word of God, given in Arabic to Muhammad.

Muslims believe that Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah (570-623 CE) was the very last prophet in a line that includes Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. The Word of God revealed to him by Allah was memorised perfectly by teachers, and later recorded in the Qur'an, the direct speech of God revealed in Arabic. To this day the memorisation of the Qur'an involves the specific intricacies of vowel lengths and rhythm and pronounciation, to correctly recite it.

There are three core tenents in Islam:

• The Qur'an: The ultimate source of guidance.
• Hadith & Sunna: The reports of the sayings, deeds, and approvals of the Prophet Muhammad.
• Shari'a: The Sacred Law that governs acts of worship, ethics, family, trade and politics

There are also five pillars in Islam:

• Shahada: Declaration of faith, through the saying lā ilāha illā Allāh, Muḥammad rasūl Allāh ("There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His Messenger")
• Salat: Five daily prayers performed at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset and night.
• Zakat: Obligatory charity, usually a percentage of wealth.
• Sawm: Fasting from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan.
• Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca, required once in a lifetime if financially and physically possible

While there are core tenents of Sacred Law through Sharia, the rest of Islamic Law (fiqh) is not uniform but developed through different schools of thought. There are four main ones: Hanafi, Maliki, Shaf'i and Hanbali. In North and West Africa, the Maliki school is the one that dominates, which is what will be discussed.

The Maliki school is named after Imam Malik ibn Anas (711-795 CE) of Medina, the second most important city in Islam. His most famous work, the al-Muwatta' is a collection of hadiths and legal opinions that became foundational for Maliki jurists.

Some of its characteristis are the emphasis on the practice of the people of Medina ('amal ahl al-Madina) as a reflection of the living tradition of the Prophet, a high regard for consensus (ijma') and public welfare (maslaha mursala), and the acceptance of custom ('urf) as a supplementary source for law, as long as it does not contradict revelation.

North African scholars and traders brought the Maliki school to the 11th century, providing the frameworks for Islamic states in the region, guidance on daily matters, and connections between the broader world, as Maliki fiqh was strong with their northern trade partners in Maghreb and al-Andalus.

Particularly important is the allowance and emphasis on custom ('urf), which means that unlike other areas where local cultures and traditions were entirely replaced by Arab heritage, Islam became very adaptable and unique in African contetxs, allowing the Islamic legal order to respect already existing frameworks for marriage, dispute resolution, and governance.


Alongside law, Islam has also developed a spiritual path known as Sufism (tasawwuf). It emphasizes purifying the heart, cultivating remembrance of God, and following spiritual matters. Basic principles are:

• Dhikr: Continuous remembrance of God, through silent mediating or group chanting.
• Murshid: A disciple (murid) learns under a spiritual guide who leads him towards moral and spiritual refinement.
• Baraka: Spiritual grace or blessing, believed to flow from saints (awliya'), holy places, and sacred texts.
• Tariqa: Organized Sufi "paths" or orders that structure devotional life, often with chains of transmission going back to the Prophet.

Sufism entered through trade in North Africa as well, and became deeply rooted in everyday life. Sufi teachers had students like other scholars, and they produced a good amount of the existing devotional poetry in Arabic and Ajami, recited as part of Dhikr. Only later in the 20th and current century after Islam became homogenised through globalisation did West African scholars start to controversise Sufism, which was persecuted in many regions of the world.


West Africa isn't without religious conflicts however, and the most prominent are between the Qadriyya Order and the Tijaniyya Order.

The Qadiriyya Order was founded by 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (1077-1166) in Baghdad, which spread across Africa, arriving in West Africa by the 1400s CE. It is known for a moderate, inclusive approach to Islam: charity, humility and communal service. West Africa produced some Qadiriyya saints, in the Sufism sense of awliya' Allah (friends of God). For example Shehu Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817) of the Sokoto Caliphate which promoted a renewal of Islam through scholarship and social reform.

Much later on came the Tijaniyya Order founded by Ahmad al-Tijani (1737-1815) in North Africa. His distinguishing claim is that he received instructions directly from the Prophet in a vision, and his teachings spread rapidly in his lifetime through West Africa, particularly in Mali, Senegal and Niger.

Some of their beliefs include group dhikr (wird), a strong loyalty to the order's leaders, and an emphasis of exclusive devotion, with participants discouraged from mixing with other orders. They were more favourable towards jihad (establishing an Islamic state through war).

The Tijani claims of exclusive access to the Prophet were criticised heavily by Qadiris, and they often competed for influence over their rulers. This caused political factions in the Sokoto Caliphate and Senegambia, and during colonialism Tijani leaders heavily resisted it while Qadiris tried to negotiate.


Overall, Islam is both a universal and deeply local religion in Africa, with its core beliefs and practices that unite billions around the world. However in West Africa, the adaptability of Maliki and the power of the Sufi orders created a special character of Islam that would later be criticised by outside purist perspectives. It is a living tradition that resisted the fully Christian colonisers and is a mark of pride today.